All Kinds of Glass

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Steel - Vertical slurry pump EVR-100R

Material properties Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, ie. combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3he form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2yrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining the ore with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon.

This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at approximately 250 C (482 F) and copper, which melts at approximately 1,000 C (1,830 F). In comparison, cast iron melts at approximately 1,370 C (2,500 F). All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. Smelting results in an alloy (pig iron) containing too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue.

To prevent corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (0.2800.291 lb/in3). Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure -ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 C (1,333 F), and only 0.005% at 0 C (32 F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or -iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% carbon at 1,148 C (2,098 F)), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel. When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and cementite. Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure.

There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors. Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible. Heat treatment Main article: Heat treating carbon steel There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy. Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Steel production Iron ore pellets for the production of steel Main article: Steelmaking See also: Steel production by country When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added.

This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4000 ingots are cast per year. The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling it is heat treated for strength, however this is relatively rare. History of steelmaking Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy Ancient steel Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing bloomeries iron-smelting facilities so that the bloom contained carbon. Steel is mentioned in the Bible: Jeremiah 15:12 of the Authorized King James Version, it reads: "Shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?". However, it seems the Hebrews had no word for "steel" but used instead (istoma). The earliest known production of steel is a piece of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia and is about 4,000 years old. Other ancient steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 BC. In the 4th century BC steel weapons like the Falcata were produced in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military. The Chinese of the Warring States (403221 BC) had quench-hardened steel, while Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. Wootz steel and Damascus steel Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent was found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka. Wootz steel was produced in India by about 300 BC. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported into China from India by the 5th century AD. This early steel-making method in Sri Lanka employed the unique use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds and producing almost pure steel.

Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements. It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated up with the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil[citation needed], a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did long ago. Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast. Modern steelmaking A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England In Europe since 1600s, the first step in producing steel has been the smelting iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace from ore, charcoal, and air. Modern methods use coke instead of charcoal, which has proven to be a great deal cheaper. Processes starting from bar iron Main articles: Blister steel and Crucible steel In these processes pig iron was "fined" in a finery forge to produce bar iron (wrought iron), which was then used in steel-making. The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614. It was produced by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of wrought iron. During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from oregrounds iron from a region of Sweden, north of Stockholm. This was still the usual raw material in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than being forged, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots. Processes starting from pig iron A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the Brandenburg Museum of Industry White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in 1858. His raw material was pig iron. This enabled steel to be produced in large quantities cheaply, so that mild steel is now used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, because it lined the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.

Another improvement in steelmaking was the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process. These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking, developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limits impurities. Now, electric arc furnaces are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity. Steel industry A Corus Group plant in the United Kingdom Steel production by country in 2007 See also: History of the modern steel industry, Global steel industry trends, Steel production by country, and List of steel producers It is common today to talk about "the iron and steel industry" as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products. The steel industry is often considered to be an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development. The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group. ArcelorMittal is however the world's largest steel producer. In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively. In 2008, steel started to be traded as a commodity in the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. Recycling A pile of steel scrap in Brussels, waiting to be recycled Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world, and, as of 2007, more than 78% of steel was recycled in the United States. In the United States it is the most widely recycled material; in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled. The most commonly recycled items are containers, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials. For example, in 2007, more than 97% of structural steel and 110% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced.

A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron. The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years, in large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements compared with refinement from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year. Steel from the World Trade Center is poured for construction of USS New York (LPD-21) The BOS steelmaking uses between 25 and 35% recycled steel to make new steel. BOS steel usually has less residual elements in it, such as copper, nickel and molybdenum and is therefore more malleable than EAF steel so it is often used to make automotive fenders, soup cans, industrial drums or any product with a large degree of cold working. EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains more residual elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen and lime so it is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar and other products that require little cold working. Recycling one ton of steel saves 1,100 kilograms of iron ore, 630 kilograms of coal, and 55 kilograms of limestone. Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions, there is often very little waste produced during construction, and any waste that is produced may be recycled. For a typical 2,000-square-foot (200 m2) two-story house, a steel frame is equivalent to about six recycled cars, while a comparable wooden frame house may require as many as 4050 trees. v  d  e Recycling by material aluminum   batteries   computers   concrete   glass   paper   plastic   rubber   steel   textiles   timber Contemporary steel See also: Steel grades Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes. Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some stainless steels are magnetic, while others are nonmagnetic. Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted. Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat. Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very strong but still malleable metal.

Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 1214% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life. Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. Though not an alloy, galvanized steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been hot-dipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust. Uses A roll of steel wool Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, infrastructure, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws. Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipeline transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role). Historical A carbon steel knife Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches. With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel due to their lower cost and weight. Long steel A steel pylon suspending overhead powerlines As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete Railroad tracks Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges Wires Flat carbon steel Major appliances Magnetic cores The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships. Stainless steel A stainless steel gravy boat Main article: Stainless steel Cutlery Rulers Surgical equipment Wrist watches See also CALPHAD Cold rolling Global steel industry trends Hot rolling Iron in folklore List of steel producers Machinability Maraging steel Pelletizing Rolling Rolling mill Rust Belt SAE steel grades Silicon steel Steel mill Steel abrasive Tamahagane, used in Samurai swords. Tinplate References ^ a b c d e Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) . Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 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The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/06/science/ancient-smelter-used-wind-to-make-high-grade-steel.html?n=Top/News/Science/Topics/Archaeology and Anthropology.  ^ a b Ann Feuerbach, 'An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus' IAMS 25 for 2005, 27-43 at 29, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 282. ^ a b G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". Nature 379 (3): 6063. doi:10.1038/379060a0.  ^ Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". News nature (Nature). doi:10.1038/news061113-11.  ^ Wayman, M L and Juleff, G (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka". Historical Metallurgy 33 (1): 26.  ^ Robert Hartwell (966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". Journal of Economic History 26: 5354.  ^ a b R. F. Tylecote, A history of metallurgy 2 edn, Institute of Materials, London 1992, 95-99 and 102-105. ^ A. Raistrick, A Dynasty of Ironfounders (1953; York 1989) ^ C. K. Hyde, Technological Change and the British iron industry (Princeton 1977) ^ B. Trinder, The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester 2000) ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: I Blister Steel: the birth of an industry (The Metals Society, London, 1984), 48-52. ^ P. W. King (2003). "The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century". Journal of Industrial History 6 (1): 2549.  ^ a b c d "Iron and steel industry". Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: II Crucible Steel: the growth of technology (The Metals Society, London, 1984). ^ James Moore Swank (1892). History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. ISBN 0833734636.  ^ "Bessemer process". Britannica. 2. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2005. pp. 168.  ^ "Basic oxygen process". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ J.A.T. Jones, B. Bowman, P.A. Lefrank, Electric Furnace Steelmaking, in The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 525660. R.J. Fruehan, Editor. 1998, The AISE Steel Foundation: Pittsburgh. ^ "Steel Industry". http://bx.businessweek.com/steel-industry/. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "India's steel industry steps onto world stage". http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand". The News. 2008-03-01. http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=98951.  ^ Uchitelle, Louis (2009-01-01). "Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/business/02steel.html?_r=1&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ a b Hartman, Roy A. (2009). "Recycling". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html.  ^ a b "Steel Recycling Rates at a Glance". http://www.recycle-steel.org/rates.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "2005 Minerals Handbook" (PDF). February 2007. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/recycle/recycmyb05.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-15.  ^ "Recycling steel appliances". http://recycle-steel.org/appliances.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Steel: Driving auto recycling success". http://recycle-steel.org/cars.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Facts About Steel Recycling". http://earth911.com/metal/steel/facts-about-steel-recycling/. Retrieved 2009-07-18.  ^ "Steel". http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/materials/steel.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Information on Recycling Steel Products". WasteCap of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071011205459/http://wastecap.org/wastecap/commodities/steel/steel.htm#Benefitssteel. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Steel: the clear cut alternative for building homes". http://recycle-steel.org/PDFs/brochures/residenfram.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "High strength low alloy steels". Schoolscience.co.uk. http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-14.  ^ "Steel Glossary". American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). http://steel.org. Retrieved 2006-07-30.  ^ "Steel Interchange". American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC). Archived from the original on 2007-12-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20071222180444/http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=/CustomSource/Faq/SteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Dual-phase steel". Intota Expert Knowledge Services. http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual-phase+steel. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Werner, Prof. Dr. mont. Ewald. "Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history". http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ "Properties of Maraging Steels". http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=103. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ Mirko, Centi; Saliceti Stefano. "Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels". Tampere University of Technology. Archived from the original on 2008-03-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20080307200557/http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP,TRIPandDualphase+mirko.doc. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Hadfield manganese steel. Answers.com. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Retrieved on 2007-02-28. ^ Bringas, John E. (2004) (PDF). Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition (3rd. ed.). ASTM International. p. 14. ISBN 0-8031-3362-6. http://astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf.  ^ Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 page 1-5 ^ "Galvanic protection". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ Ochshorn, Jonathan (2002-06-11). "Steel in 20th Century Architecture". Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture. http://people.cornell.edu/pages/jo24/comments/steel.html. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Materials science". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  Bibliography Ashby, Michael F.; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992), An introduction to microstructures, processing and design, Butterworth-Heinemann.  Bugayev, K.; Konovalov, Y.; Bychkov, Y.; Tretyakov, E.; Savin, Ivan V. (2001). Iron and Steel Production. The Minerva Group, Inc.. ISBN 9780894991097. http://books.google.com/books?id=MJdIVtmwuUsC. Retrieved 2009-07-19. . Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.  Gernet, Jacques (1982). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-295358-6.  Further reading Duncan Burn; The Economic History of Steelmaking, 18671939: A Study in Competition. Cambridge University Press, 1961. Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain. 1996. J. C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry. Harvard University Press, 1962. H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1 & Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 19012001. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Steel Look up steel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. World Steel Association (worldsteel) steeluniversity.org: Online steel education resources from worldsteel and the University of Liverpool Extensive picture gallery of iron and steel production methods in North America and Europe Interactive knife steel composition chart and comparison graph builder Huge archive on steels, Cambridge University Categories: Building materials | Recyclable materials | Steel | SteelmakingHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010

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Chinese

Spoken Chinese
Main article: Spoken Chinese
A map shows the subdivisions of the language ("tongues" or groups "Dialect") in China itself. The traditionally recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Mandarin
Notes: includes standard Mandarin
Guan;
Gunhu
Pinyin Gunhu
v. 850,000,000
Bifnghu
Pinyin Bifnghu
Wu
Notes: includes Shanghai
Wu;
Wyoming
nyiu long-short: ng
C. 90,000,000
Yue
Notes: Includes Cantonese and Taishan
Yue;
Yuy
Jyutping: Jyut6 jyu5;
Yale H Yuht
C. 80,000,000
Min
Notes: includes Taiwan and Teochew
Min
MNY
POJ: Bn g;
BUC: MNG ng
C. 50,000,000
Xiang
Xiang;
Xingye
Romanization: Shien "
C. 35,000,000
Hakka
Kejia;
Kjihu
Hakka pinyin: k-fa Hak-Hak or will k-
C. 35,000,000
Khu
Hakka pinyin: Hak Hak-fa-course or
Gan
Gan;
Gny
Romanization: Gon
C. 20,000,000
classifications challenged by some Chinese linguists:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Jin
Notes: Mandarin
Jin;
JNY
No
45 million
Huizhou
Notes: Wu
Hui;
Huzhuhu
No
~ 3,200,000
Pinghua
Notes: Cantonese
Ping;
Pnghu Gungx
No
~ 5000000
There are groups that children are not yet classified, such as dialect Danzhou (), Danzhou spoken on Hainan Island, Xianghua not (), to be confused with Xiang (), Spoken in west Hunan and Shaozhou Tuhua (), spoken in northern Guangdong. Dungan language, spoken in Central Asia, is closely related to Mandarin. However, it is generally considered as "Chinese" as it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by Dungan people outside China who are not considered our home to ethnic Chinese. See List of Chinese dialects for a complete list of different dialects within these large groups, large.
In general, the above groups dialect Language has no defined boundaries, but Mandarin is the predominant language Sinitic North and South-West and the rest are mostly spoken in central Europe and Southeast China. With Often, as in the case of Guangdong province, native speakers of major variants overlapped. As in many areas that have been during linguistic diversity along, not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The Ethnologue lists a total of 14, but the number varies between seven and seventeen years as the classification scheme followed. For example, the Min variety is often divided into Northern Min (Minbei, Fuchow) and Southern Min (Minnan, Amoy-Swatow), linguists have not determined whether their mutual intelligibility is small enough to be classified as language distinct.
In general, the diversity of the mountain China Southern language showed that the flat North China. In parts of southern China, an important dialect of the city can be understood marginal closest neighbors. For instance, Wuzhou is about 120 miles upstream from Guangzhou, but his dialect more like Standard Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, which is the Taishan, 60 kilometers southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers of the same (Ramsey, 1987).
Standard Mandarin and diglossia
Main article: Standard Mandarin
Putonghua / Guoyu, often called "Mandarin" is the official standard language used by the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, and Singapore (where it is called "Huayu"). It is based on the Beijing dialect, which is the dialect of Mandarin spoken in Beijing. The Government intends to speakers of all varieties of language Chinese use it as a common communication language. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, media, and as language of instruction in schools.
In mainland China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature: it is common for a Chinese speak two or three varieties of languages Sinitic (or ialects) with Standard Mandarin. For example, in addition to a resident of Shanghai would speak Putonghua Shanghai and, if not grow here, their local dialect. A native of Guangzhou Norma speaks Cantonese and Mandarin, a resident of Taiwan, Taiwan and Putonghua / Guoyu. A person who usually lives in Taiwan can mix pronunciations, phrases and words from Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese, and this mixture is considered normal in many circumstances. In Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin begins to take its place alongside standard English and Cantonese, the official languages.
Linguistic
Article: identification of varieties of Chinese
Linguists often view Chinese as a language family, but because of socio-Economic situation in China, political and cultural and the fact that all spoken varieties use a common system of writing, it is customary to refer these variants, in general, mutually unintelligible as "Chinese." The diversity of variants Sinitic is comparable to the Romance languages.
From a purely descriptive, "Languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar idiolect, and the distinction is not relevant for linguists who are concerned only with the technical description of the regional languages. However, the idea of a single language has major emphases in political and cultural identity, and explains the amount of emotion on this issue. Most Chinese and Chinese linguistics refers to China as a single language and its subdivisions dialects, while others call Chinese a language family.
China itself has a deadline for its system writing unified, Zhongwen (), while its nearest equivalent is used to describe its variants are spoken Hanyu (language [Poken s] Han Chinese) of its mandate would be translated into any of ANGUAGE or ANGUAGES since China has no grammatical number. In Chinese, it takes a lot less for uniform continuous speech and writing, as shown by two independent morphemes characters and Yu Wen. The ethnic Chinese often consider these variations as a single spoken language for reasons of nationality and how they have inherited a common cultural and linguistic heritage in Classical Chinese. speakers native of Wu Han, Min, Hakka and Cantonese, for example, may consider their own linguistic varieties as separate spoken languages, but the Han Chinese race internal onelbeit diversethnicity same. To Chinese nationalists, the idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that the identity China is much more fragmented and incoherent that it really is and, as such, is often regarded as culturally and politically provocative. Moreover, in Taiwan, which is closely associated with Taiwan independence, which some supporters of Taiwan independence promote local language spoken in Taiwan Minnan-founded.
The interior of the PRC and Singapore, the government is common to refer to all divisions of the language (s Sinica) beside standard Mandarin as fangyan languages (often translated REGIONAL ialects). Times Modern Chinese speakers of all kinds are linked by a formal standard written language, although the standard modern written is based on Mandarin, the dialect of Beijing generally modern.
Language and nationality
The sinophone term, coined by analogy with the reference of English and French, those who speak the native language of China, or do you want as a means of communication. The term is derived from Sina, the Latin word for ancient China.
Written Chinese
Main article: Written Chinese
Chinese characters evolved over time from earlier forms of hieroglyphs. Idea all Chinese characters are pictograms or ideograms is wrong: most characters contain phonetic elements, and consist elements of phonetic and semantic radicals. Only the simplest characters, S (human), ri (sunlight), Shan (mountain), shui (Water) can be completely original painting. In 100 AD, the famous scholar of the dynasty characters Shn Hn X ordered into seven categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were classified as pictograms and 8090% as phonetic complexes consisting of a semantic element that indicates meaning, and an element indicates the phonetic pronunciation. In general, the phonetic element is more accurate and more important than semantics. [Edit] There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary.
The characters are modern in style after the standard script (Kish) (see styles below). Several other styles Written also used in the calligraphy of Eastern Asia, including the script of the Board of Directors (zhunsh), italic (SSTC) and writing office (LSH). Calligraphy artists can be written in simplified characters and traditional, but tend to use the classic characteristics of art traditional.
A number of styles of Chinese calligraphy.
There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system is still used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao and Chinese communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside of China Continental takes its shape from standard character forms dating from the end of the Han Dynasty. The simplified Chinese characters, developed Republic China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, shorthand caoshu many variants Commons.
Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, is currently firstnd the nation to officially adopt simplified characters onlyoreign, but also was becoming the de facto standard for young ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet is the platform to practice reading the alternative system, traditional or simplified.
A Chinese today recognizes approximately 6000-7000 characters well formed, about 3,000 characters are needed to read a newspaper Mainland. The CPM government defines literacy among workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, although this is only literacy functional. A complete dictionary of the great Kangxi Dictionary contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure characters, variant, rare and archaic, less a quarter of these characters are now in common use.
History
History of China
ANTIQUE
May 3 kings and emperors
Xia Dynasty A. C. 21001600
Shang Dynasty A. C. 16001046
Zhou Dynasty 1045256 a. C.
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn
Warring
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BC C. BCE206
Han Dynasty 206 EC BCE220
Western Han
Xin Dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220,280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin Dynasty 265 420
Western Jin
16 kingdoms
304,439
Eastern Jin
Dynasties South and North
420,589
Sui Dynasty 581 618
Tang Dynasty 618 907
(Second Zhou 690705)
5 dynasties and
10 Kingdoms
907 960
Liao Dynasty
9071125
Song Dynasty
9601279
Northern Song
W. Xia
Southern Song
Jin
12711368 Yuan Dynasty
Ming Dynasty 13681644
The Qing Dynasty 16441911
MODERN
Republic of China 19121949
Republic
China
1949resent
Republic
China
(Taiwan)
1945resent
Stubs
Chinese historians
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties Chinese history
Language History
Art History
Economic History
History of education
Science and history of technology
Legal History
Media history
Unclassified
Naval history
This box: View Talk Edit
Main article: History of China
Most linguists classify all varieties of modern spoken Chinese in the family of Sino-Tibetan languages and I think there was an original language, called Proto-Sino-Tibetan languages whose Sinitic of Tibeto-Burmese and low. The relationship between the Sino-Tibetan Chinese and others is an area of active research, as well as the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main challenge in this effort is that, if the documentation is insufficient to reconstruct the ancient Chinese sounds, there is no written documentation that records the division between proto-Sino-Tibetan and ancient Chinese. In addition, most ancient languages that allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan is very little known and many techniques developed to analyze the decline of languages (merger) Indo PIE does not apply to the Chinese language isolation due to "lack morphological "especially after the ancient Chinese.
Categorisation of China's development is a subject of academic debate. One of the first systems was designed by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in 1900, most current systems rely heavily on the ideas and methods of Karlgren.
Ancient China, sometimes called "Archaic Chinese" was the common language in the early and middle Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE256 ACS), which is one of the inscriptions on objects bronze, the poetry of Shjng, Shjng history, and many Yjng (I Ching). Phonetic elements in most Chinese characters provide clues their ancient Chinese pronunciation. The pronunciation of Chinese characters in Japanese taken, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable information. Old Chinese was not entirely devoid of inflection. He had a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing the differentiated consonants, but probably not even tones. Work on the reconstruction of China, started with NGQ dynasty philologists. Some of the first loan words Indo-European Chinese have been proposed, particularly m "honey" sh "lion", and maybe I am "horse" qun "dog" and the goose . The source indicated that the ancient Chinese reconstructions are tentative and not final, therefore no conclusions. The reconstruction of ancient Chinese can not be great if this assumption can be questioned. The source also notes that the dialects of southern China monosyllabic words are more dialects of Mandarin Chinese.
The Chinese media is the language used in the dynasties of Southern and Northern Development and Su, TNG and SNG dynasties (6th to 10th centuries AD). Can be divided in a first step, is found in the book "Qiyn Glitter" (601 AD), and a period from the late 10th century is reflected in the Gungyn "book gel. Linguists are more confident of having reconstructed the sound of Middle China. The proof of the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transcripts, tables "of the rhyme" built by the ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system and Chinese phonetic translation of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative, and some researchers have argued that the attempt to reconstruct, for example, Modern Cantonese rhymes from modern biotechnology Cantopop report fairly imprecise language spoken today.
The development of languages China's early historical times until this was complex. most Chinese in Schüno and in a wide arc from north-east (Manchuria) in Southwest (Yunnan), use several dialects Mandarin as the language of power. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is mainly due to the Plains northern China. In contrast, the mountains and rivers of central and southern China promote linguistic diversity.
Until the mid-20th century in southern China spoke only their local variety native to China. In Nanjing was the capital during the early Ming dynasty, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant, at least until the last years of the Qing Dynasty. Since the 17th century, the Qing Dynasty was established orthologs academies (; Zhngyn Shyun) to comply with the standard pronunciation of the capital Beijing. For the general population, however, this has had a limited effect. The people who do not speak Mandarin in southern China also continued to use their language in all aspects of life. The standard Beijing Mandarin Court was used exclusively by officials and was therefore very limited.
This situation has not changed until the mid-20th century with the creation (in both the PRC and the Republic of China but not Hong Kong) of the system of compulsory education has committed to teaching Standard Mandarin. Accordingly, Mandarin is spoken by the citizens of almost all young and middle-aged and China mainland to Taiwan. Standard Cantonese, Mandarin not used in Hong Kong during the British colonial period (due to its high maternal migrants and Cantonese) and remains the official language of education, formal speech and everyday life, but the Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential after the surrender in 1997.
Classical Chinese was once the lingua franca of neighboring Asian countries like Japan, Korea and Vietnam for centuries before the advent European influences in the 19th century.
Influences on other languages
Throughout Chinese history and political culture had a great influence Independent on languages such as Korean and Japanese. Koreans and Japanese both have writing systems employing Chinese characters (Hanzi), which are called Hanja and Kanji, respectively.
The term Vietnam for Chinese writing is Hn t. It was the only method available for writing Vietnamese until the 14th century, used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese Lites. From 14 to late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with Ch nm, a script has been modified by the incorporation of sounds and syllables of China native speaker of Vietnamese. Ch nm completely replaced by a modified Latin script created by the Jesuit missionary priest Alexander de Rhodes, which incorporates a system of diacritics to indicate tones and consonants change. About 60% of Vietnamese vocabulary is recognized as modern HN-VI (between China and Vietnam), most of which was borrowed from of Chinese media.
In South Korea, the Hangul alphabet is generally used, but Hanja is used as a kind of fat. In North Korea, Hanja has been discontinued. Since the modernization Japan in the 19th century, there was a debate to abandon the use of Chinese characters, but the practical advantages of a completely new script have so far not been considered sufficient.
In derived characters Zhuang Chinese logographic writing songs, while not a Chinese dialect Zhuang. Since the 1950s, the Zhuang language has been written in a Latin alphabet amended.
Languages in the influence of Chinese culture also have a large number of Chinese loans. Fifty percent or more of the vocabulary Korea is the Chinese, even for a significant percentage of Japanese and Vietnamese vocabulary. China has also provided a lot of grammatical features many of these languages and neighboring countries including lack of sex and use of classifiers. [Edit]
Chinese loan words also exist in European languages than English. Examples of such words are "tea" in the pronunciation of Minnan (POJ: T), Minnan pronunciation of ketchup (Koe-tsiap) Cantonese pronunciation and "kumquat" Kam Kuat ().
Phonology
For more specific information on phonology Chinese see the respective articles of each major variety spoken.
The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a core consisting of a vowel (which may one monophthong, diphthong, or even in triphthong some varieties) with an appearance option or coda consonants and tone. There are some cases where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where sonorant nasal consonants / M / Y / / by itself as its own syllable.
In all the varieties spoken, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables have codas are restricted to / m /, / n /, / /, / N /, / t /, / k / or / /. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Mandarin, are limited to only two, namely / n / y / /. Consonant clusters do not occur in the onset or coda. The onset may be an affricate or a consonant followed by a landslide, but they are not generally considered consonant clusters.
The number of sounds in different dialects varies, but generally, there was a downward trend of average Chinese sounds. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and words also have is much more than most varieties spoken multisyllabic others. The total number of syllables in some varieties, while nearly a thousand, including tonal variation, which is one-eighth as much as English.
All varieties of Chinese use spoken tones. A few dialects of northern China can have only three tones, while some dialects of southern China up to six or 10 tones, depending on how you count. An exception This rule is Shanghai, which has reduced the overall tone of a pitch accent two-tone like modern Japanese.
A common example used illustrating the use of tones in Chinese are the four main tones of Standard Mandarin applied to the syllable "ma". The colors correspond to five characters:
(M) "mother" at IBC
(M) "hemp" or "clumsy" increasingly IPC
(M) "Horse" ow-descending ascending
(M) "scold" fall IPC
(Ma) These particles "eutral
Listen to the sounds
This is a recording the four main tones. Fifth or neutral tone is not included.
Trouble hearing the file? See media help.
phonetic transcriptions
The Chinese have a uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid 20th century, even if the models were recorded in the statement of dictionaries and books early frost. The first translators of India in Sanskrit and Pali work, were the first to attempt describe the sounds and modes of enunciation of a foreign language in China. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuit missionaries Western Court and resulted in rudimentary systems of Latin transcription, based on the Mandarin dialect of Nanjing.
Romanization
Main article: Romanization Chinese
Romanization is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization Chinese language because the absence of an indigenous phonetic transcription until modern times. China is known to have been first written in Latin by Christian missionaries in the 16th century Westerners.
Today, the most common standard for the romanization of Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin standard is often simply called pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, and later adopted by Singapore (see Romanization of Chinese in Singapore) and Taiwan. Pinyin is now almost universally used for teaching spoken Chinese standard in schools and colleges Across America, Australia and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and ringtones for education new words. Pinyin romanization is generally less than an image of what the word represents the Chinese character on the side.
System second most common romanization, Wade-Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As the system approaches phonology of Mandarin Chinese in consonants and vowels in English, an Anglicized, may be particularly useful for speakers of Chinese students home English. Wade-Giles has been found in academic use in the United States, especially before the 1980s, and until recently, has been widely used in Taiwan.
When used in European texts, the tone both in the transcriptions in pinyin and Wade-Giles often excluded simplicity, widespread use of apostrophes Wade-Giles is often omitted. Thus, Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing they Bijng (Pinyin), and Taipei T'ai-pei (Wade-Giles).
Examples of Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:
Mandarin Romanization Comparison
Characters
Wade-Giles
Hanyu Pinyin
Notes
Chung1-kuo
Zhnggu
"China"
Pei-ching1
Bijng
Capital the People's Republic of China
T'ai-pei
Tibi
Capital of the Republic of China
Mao Tse-tung1
MB Zdng
The former leader Chinese Communist
Chieh4 Chiang Shih
jing Jish
Former Chinese Nationalist leader (better known to Anglophones as Chiang Kai-shek, with the Cantonese pronunciation)
K'ung Tzu
Z Kng
'Confucius
Other systems of romanization of Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, Yale University (invented during the Second World War for the U.S. troops), and separate systems for Cantonese, the Minnan, Hakka and other Chinese languages or dialects.
Other phonetic transcriptions
Chinese phonetic transcription in many Other writing systems throughout the centuries. Phags-pa script, for example, has been a great help in the reconstruction of the pronunciation forms pre-modern China.
Zhuyin (also called bopomofo), a semi-syllabic is still widely used in elementary schools in Taiwan to assist in the standard pronunciation. Although the characters are thinking about writing katakana Bopomofo no source to justify the assertion that Katakana was the foundation of the system Zhuyin. A table comparing the pinyin Zhuyin Article Zhuyin exists. The pinyin syllables according Zhuyin and can also be compared by examining the following points:
Pinyin table
Zhuyin table
There are at least two systems for Chinese Cyrillization. The most widespread Palladium is the system.
Morphology and grammar
Main article: Chinese grammar
Modern China has often been classified wrong as a "monosyllabic" language. Although most are single syllable morphemes, modern China today is much less a language in which monosyllabic names, adjectives and verbs are largely di-syllabic. The tendency to create bisyllabic words in modern Chinese language, especially Mandarin, has been particularly strong in comparison with the classical Chinese. Classical Chinese is a very isolating, each morpheme in general, which corresponds to a single syllable and a single, modern Chinese, however, tends to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and agglutination tetra-character. In fact, some linguists believe that the modern classification of China as an isolating language is misleading, for this reason alone.
China morphology strictly related to a number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest blocks of language. While many of these morphemes monosyllabic (z, Chinese) can be stored in one word, no more frequently than are multi-syllabic compounds, known as c () that looks more the traditional Western concept of a word. A c Chinese (DSB) can be composed of more than one character morpheme, usually two, but it can be three or more.
For example
Yun strong (traditional)
Strong Yun (simplified)
Hanbaobao / Hanbao Amburgo (Traditional)
Hanbaobao / Hanbao "Hamburger" (simplified)
Oh, me
PEOPLE Ren
Diqiu Arth (globe shaped)
ightning Shandi (Traditional)
Shandi "lightning" (Simplified)
ream Meng (Traditional)
Meng "Dream" (simplified)
All varieties Modern Chinese languages are analytic because they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology.e., changing the shape of a a function word to indicate the word in a prayer. In other words, China has had some time inflectionst grammar, no voice, no number (singular, plural, but there are markers for the plural, eg personal pronouns) and some parts (corresponding to a "a" in English). There are, however, a gender difference in the written language ("he" and "her"), but it should be noted that this is a relatively introduction Recent Chinese language in the twentieth century.
They make extensive use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. Mandarin Chinese, this implies the use of particles similar to LE, hai, Yi Jing, etc.
Chinese features Subject Verb Object word order, and like many other languages East Asia has made frequent use of the building-ITEM to form sentences. China has also an extensive system of classification and measured words, a Another common feature with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean languages. See ranking Chinese for a wide coverage of this issue.
Other features Notable grammatical all varieties of spoken Chinese include the use of the verbal construction standard, the fall of the pronoun and the launch of related topics.
Although the traits share many grammars of spoken varieties, which have differences. See Chinese grammar to the grammar of Standard Mandarin (standard Chinese spoken language), and articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.
Tones and homophones
Official Modern spoken Mandarin has only 400 monosyllables, but more than 10,000 written characters, so there are many homophones are distinguished only by the four tones. Even this is not always sufficient unless the context and exact phrase or C is identified.
J mono-syllables, the first tone Standard Mandarin, matches the characters following: chicken, machine, base (a) hit, hunger and the amount. In his speech, a monosyllable glyphing its meaning must be determined by the context or in relation to other morphemes (eg "some" as the opposite of "nothing"). Native speakers may indicate that the words or phrases in their names are, for writing: jio Mngzi Jiyng, Jilng Jing-ji, yng Ynggu of "My name is Jiyng, the ying Jia Jialing River and the Chinese short form of the United Kingdom. "
Southern Chinese dialects such as Cantonese and Hakka preserved more of rhyme Chinese middle and have more tones. The above examples of j, for example, to "stimulate" "Chicken" and "machine" have different pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using Jyutping): gik1 and gei1 gai1 respectively. For this reason, the varieties South tend to use fewer words in the multi-syllabic.
Vocabulary
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The entire corpus of Chinese characters since ancient times has more than 20,000 characters, of which only 10,000 are commonly used. However the Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words, since most Chinese words consist of two or more characters, it often words are the characters in more Chinese.
Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and phrases are varied. The Hanyu da Zidian, a collection of all the characters including Chinese, includes 54,678 head entries of the characters, including versions Oracle bones. The Zihai Zhonghua (1994) contains entries for 85,568 head definitions of character and is the largest reference work based purely on the literary character and its variants.
The dictionary's most comprehensive Chinese language pure, 12-flows Hanyu Da Cidian, the records of more than 23,000 Chinese characters head and gives over 370,000 definitions. The revised Cihai 1999, a multi-volume encyclopedic work reference dictionary, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions in 19,485 Chinese characters, including names, phrases and zoological, geographical, sociological point of view, science and technology.
The last issue of 2007 5 Cidian Xiandai Hanyu, a dictionary faith in one volume in modern standard Chinese language used mainland China, with 65,000 entries and 11,000 characters defined head.
Loans lexical
See also: transcription and translation of neologisms Chinese characters Chinese
Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a large amount of loans from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed from native Chinese morphemes, including words that describe the objects and imported ideas. However, direct loans to foreign words phonetically has held since antiquity.
The words from the Silk Road since ancient Chinese understand "Grape", "pomegranate" and "lion". Some words are taken from Buddhist scriptures, including "Buddha" and "Bodhisattva. Other words were from northern nomadic people, like "hutong". The words taken by cities along the Silk Road, such as grapes (Mandarin PTO) generally Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit and Pli, the liturgical language of northern India. The words from the tribes nomads in the Gobi Desert, Mongolia and northeast regions generally have the Altaic etymologies as "PPA", the Chinese lute, or "cheese" or "yoghurt" but exactly what the Altaic source is not always entirely clear.
borrowing and lending modern
Modern translated into Chinese neologisms are three main ways: free translation (by the way), the phonetic translation (for sound) and a combination of the two previous (partial transcript with a selection of characters meaning "encoding). Today, it is much more common to use Chinese morphemes minting new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. All Latin and Greek etymologies are dropped and become the characters for the realization the Chinese meaning (eg, anti-general becomes "literally next door), making it more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word telephone was loaned phonetically as (Shanghai: tlfon [tlfo] Standard Mandarin: dlfng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later, the Japanese (dinhu "electric speech") in native Chinese morphemes became common. Other examples (Dinsho "electric vision") for television (Dinno "Electric Brain") to the computer (machine shuji "hand") to the mobile and (lny "blue tooth") and Bluetooth. (WNG zh "web log ") for the blog in the Cantonese in Hong Kong and Macau. Sometimes half-transliteration, half-translations commitments are accepted, such as (hnbo Bo" bread Hamburg ") for hamburger. Sometimes translations are designed so that looks like the original, while incorporating Such morphemes as China (tulj, "tractor," literally "drag-pulling machine"), or video game characters Marsh. This is often done with commercial, eg (bntng "running jump") for the Pentium and (Sibiwi "tastes better than a hundred) for the Subway restaurants.
foreign words in especially proper names (people, places), continue to enter into Chinese by the transcript according to their pronunciation. This is done by using Chinese characters with similar pronunciation. For example, "Israel" becomes (pinyin: ysli), "Paris" becomes (Pinyin BL). Number relatively few direct transcriptions have survived as common words, including the "sofa SHF," MD "motor" "Yum" humor "luj" logical "Shmoe" intelligent "fashion and xisdl" hysterical ". Most of these words were originally invented in the dialect Shanghai during the 20th century and were then given in Mandarin, hence their pronunciation in Mandarin may be quite out of English. For example, Shanghai's actually more like the English "sofa" and "motor".
The words of the West abroad were influential Chinese in the 20th century, thanks to the transcript. From France came (BLI, "ballet"), (xingbn, "Champagne") through Italian (FKI, CAFF). The influence is felt primarily in English. Since the early 20th century Shanghai, many English words are borrowed. example. above (SHF "sofa"), (yum "humor"), and (Corfe, "golf"). Later influences of the United States gave up soft (DSK, "Disco"), (KL, "tail") and (MN, mini (skirt) "). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese characters other loans drawings animated, like English (cartoons), (homosexuals), (taxi), (bus). With the growing popularity of the Internet is not a current fashion in China at the corner of English transliterations, for example. (FNS, "fans"), (hik "Hacker", literally "guest black "), (BLUG, blog, literally" networked tribes ") in Mandarin in Taiwan.
Another finding of the Chinese influence is the emergence Call in English (in terms-words) texts written in Modern Chinese foreign alphabets. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, websites and screen TV: 3-generation mobile phones (one of three generations + + ji shou, mobile phones), it "environment TI, HSK (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi), GB (Guobiao) CIF (Cost, Insurance, Freight + Jia4 price), and "Home Electronics (jia1ting1 OME), the generation W Wireless (shi2dai4 ENER), the application Television, computer job (after hou / post + PC + computer era PERSONAL Dai Shi), etc.
Since the 20th century was another source of Japan. Using kanji, Chinese characters are used in the Japanese language, Japanese re-form European concepts and inventions in Wasei-Kango (Japanese literally makes China), and re-record many of these modern Chinese. Examples include dinhu (, Denwa, "phone") shhu (, Shakai, the "Company") kxu (, Kagaku, "science") and chuxing (, chsh, "summary"). Other terms have been invented by the Japanese to give new meanings to existing Chinese terms or by reference to terms used in classical Chinese literature. Eg jngj (, Keizai), which, in the original Chinese meaning "operation in the state," the simple "Economy" in Japanese, this definition has been reduced after the Chinese re-imported. Accordingly, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there are disagreements on some of these terms whether the Japanese or the Chinese invented first. As a result of this process to come and go, "Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese share a linguistic corpus of terms describing modern terminology parallel to a corpus of similar terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared between European languages.
Learn Chinese
See also: Chinese as a foreign or second language
With the growing importance and influence China's economy in the world, the teaching of Mandarin is gaining popularity in schools in the United States, and became a subject of increasingly popular among young people study in the Western world, as in the United Kingdom.
In 1991, 2,000 foreign students in China official China Aptitude Test (similar to English Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005 the number of candidates increased sharply to 117 660.
See also
Chinese portal
Chinese characters
China exclamatory particle
Chinese honor
China classifier
Chinese number gestures
Chinese figures
Chinese punctuation
Classical Chinese Grammar
Four characters of the language
Han unification
Haner language
test HSK
Chinese Languages
Conference North American Chinese linguistics
N shu
References
DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.
Hanna, William C. (1997). Asia orthographic dilemma. University of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X.
Norman Jerry (1988). Chino. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29653-6.
Qiu Xigui (2000). The Chinese writing. Studies Society of China and former Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.
Ramsey, Robert S. (1987). The languages of China. University Princeton Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X.
Notes
^ Http: / / www.china-language.gov.cn/ (Chinese)
^ http://mandarin.org.sg/html/home.htm [link] dead
* ^ David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. that mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the primary database to refer to them as distinct languages.
Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: Grammar functional reference (1989), p. 2. the language of the Chinese family is classified as genetically independent branch of the family of Sino-Tibetan languages.
Jerry Norman. Chinese (1988), p. 1. and modern Chinese dialects are actually more of a language family.
John DeFrancis. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fancy (1984) p.56. "For the Chinese call composed of a single language dialects with varying degrees of difference is misleading to reduce disparities, depending Chao as great as those between English and Dutch. For the Chinese call a family of languages is to provide extra-linguistic differences exist and not really overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China. "
Victor H. Mair ^ (1991). "What is a Chinese" Dialect / Topolect? Reflections on a few key terms Sino-English language "(PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. Http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf.
^ The analysis of the concept of "wave" in the PST.
Sv ^ Encyclopedia Britannica words "Chinese": "Old Chinese vocabulary and contains many do not generally occur in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words of Oney and ions, and probably also ORSE, 'og', and OOSE, "Are related to Indo-European have been acquired by trade and first contact. (The nearest known Indo-European languages have been Tocharian and Sogdian half Iranian language.) Certain words are related and the Austro-first point of contact with the traditional language of Muong-Vietnamese and Mon-Khmer, January Ulenbrook, Chinesische und einige bereinstimmungen zwischen dem dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposed sections 57, see also Tsung-Tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European ancient language Chinese.
Sheng Ding and Robert A. ^ * Sanchez, speaking of China: An Analysis rise of China and promoting cultural world of Chinese East Asia, Summer 2006 Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 4
^ Zhou, Minglang: Multilingualism in China: Reforms write minority languages, 1949-2002 (Walter Gruyter 2003), ISBN 3-11-017896-6, p. 251,258.
^ DeFrancis (1984) p. 42 heads of Chinese syllables have approximately 398-418 1277 and taking into account the tone, mentioning Otto Jespersen (1,928) monosyllabic in English, London, p. 15 for a recount over 8000 syllables for English.
^ BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | How hard is it to learn Chinese?
^ (Chinese) "200 512" Xinhua News Agency, January 16, 2006.
Further reading
ABC Chinese-English dictionary complete. Publisher: Juan Francisco. (2003) University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-2766-X.
ABC Dictionary Ancient China. Axel Schuessler. 2007. University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.
References
Chinese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Keys to Chinese Language: IIoogle library books
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